How our Understanding of Genetics Has Changed Over Time Research Paper

How our Understanding of Genetics Has Changed Over Time - Research Paper Example How our Understanding of Genetics has Changed Over Time Genetics as a field of science has come quite far from being a crude belief system that tries to explain why children resemble their parents, and explained through the assumptions by early Greek scholars with regards to the mixing of the vital forces of a man and a woman in forming new life (Guttman, 2011). The fast expansion and discovery of new information with regards to the process of heredity was due to the numerous inventions that were used to study biological sciences, as well as refining methods by which the invisible are being studied. In a short amount of time, genetics, especially through molecular biology became a well-respected science with regards to the study of the transmission of traits from parent to offspring, as well as being able to trace diseases that are otherwise communicable or transferable. The basics of genetics was first studied and published in 1865 by a monk named Gregor Mendel. He studied the patte rn of inheritance by garden peas, recorded what traits were present in the parent generation, what were transmitted in the first and succeeding generations, as well as finding out what ratios of the selected traits would be found in each generation of offspring (Hartl, 2011). Through these peas experiments the concept of dominant and recessive traits were formulated. Unfortunately, his results were shelved and remained hidden until rediscovered around the early 1900’s, by two independent scientists Walter Sutton and Theodore Boveri, forming the chromosomal theory of inheritance (Cummings, 2010). This theory of inheritance explained how Mendel was able to come up with phenotypic ratios such as the 3:1 ratio, where 3 out of four would show the dominant trait, and 1 out of four for recessives. The ratio however was only able to explain traits that require at least one dominant gene to be expressed. The traits of organisms might be affected by the presence of other mediators of h eredity, and aside from the chromosomal theory of inheritance, it was proposed that the process of inheritance may also be explained through chemical reactions. Thus around the 1940’s-1950’s scientists were now on a race to find out the molecular basis of inheritance. The theories that were proliferating were either: the genetic materials were made up of proteins; or the genetic materials were made up of nucleic acids. Two scientists working together, named James Watson and Francis Crick won the race of finding out the structure of the genetic material by coming up with the specific base-pairing of the genetic material as well as the use of codon triplets in order to encode different amino acids (Hartl, 2011). They were given the Nobel Prize for discovering the structure of DNA, and even explaining its semi-conservative nature to the scientific community. When the structure of DNA was finally revealed, scientists were able to initiate projects which aimed to find out t he full sequences of many organisms on the planet, including humans. In the late 1990’s, the Human Genome Project was initiated in order to fully map all genes present in the human genome. As the project progresses, information regarding as to what genes encode for what protein,

Analyse the attempts by the EU to allievate the inherent problems of Essay

Analyse the attempts by the EU to allievate the inherent problems of establishing a single market within the Financial Services - Essay Example As a result, the integration process had to take a more heightened effort to ensure it was fruitful. The Commission published a White Paper in 1985, whereby the enabling instrument was the Single European Act (the SEA). The aim of this Act was to remove the non-tariff barriers and to encourage free movement of capital and labor by 1993. It was also agreed that discrimination by all means should cease (House of Lords, 2008, p. 33). The non-tariff barriers Although the European Commission was hell bent on establishing a single market, not much had been achieved by 1980s. Furthermore, by the mid - 1980s, most of the aims of the Rome treaty had not been attained despite the first stage of integration having been completed. Actually, non-tariff barriers were reported to have increased between 1975 and 1985 despite all these efforts. It was thereby realized that a strategy was needed to strengthen the integration among members (Canoy, Liddle and Smith, n.d, p. 3). The Single European Act h ad, in mind, three major types of non-tariff obstacles to factor mobility and trade, which inspired its objectives. The first was the physical barriers, whose formation was as a result of controls and customs formalities (House of Lords, 2008, p. 29). Its aim included moving administrative checks away from the borders and ensuring their processes were simplified, development of a common policy on transport, as well as removal of all internal controls and frontiers on capital and people. The second type was technical barriers, which encompasses the various technical product specifications. Its purpose was to harmonize regulations or to create mutual identification of standards of each member country; to institute the correspondence of qualifications; and to dismantle exchange controls. The third type was fiscal barriers, which was characterized by a very complex process of tax rates harmonization particularly in relation to the corporation and indirect taxes. Also, the SEA placed emp hasis on the suitability of allowing free trade on each member country’s public purchasing, which encompassed incorporation of social charter and application of competition. Nevertheless, there was no reliable arrangement for tackling the differences in respect to the external trade policy and a policy on subsidies was not clearly spelt out. It was also not clear, how harmonization could lead to mutual recognition in regards to the achievement of the single market (Eichacker and Amherst, n.d., p. 4). The banking industry The banking industry, among other financial sectors, was greatly regulated and it was characterized by diversified regulatory practices. Essentially, barriers to the supply of overseas services presented more problems than location-related barriers. In some countries, financial institution and non-resident banks were restricted in their rights to do business with residents, by stringent laws and regulations (House of Lords, 2008, p. 36). The first Banking Dir ective instructed members to set up systems for supervising and authorization of banks as well as other credit institutions. This directive, also, led to the requirement that these financial institutions should get licensed to be recognized. In addition, licensing accorded the financial

Globalisation Effects on Trade

Globalisation Effects on Trade Globalisation is a real phenomenon of the new world system which has a powerful force in determining the world future image. Its dimensions vary from economic, political, social, and cultural applications. The term can be defined as a transforming process that converts local transactions and deals into global ones. This conversion results in increasing cross border trade, investment, tourism and cultural exchange. By applying principles of globalisation, several positive and negative effects have arisen today. This essay will discuss three means of globalisation, where the first two have mainly positive aspects and the next one has negative aspects. Then, the essay will evaluate these aspects that accompany globalisation. The first mean is that the multinational companies and organisations of rich countries are brought to poor and developed countries. This movement provides countries with extra employment opportunities for both genders and contributes the governmental efforts in fighting unemployment. In addition, it has liberated people from the strong bond to their own customs that refuse coping with other nationalities through exporting jobs and business deals. In other words, the enhancement of multiculturalism in global village makes womens work necessary for all countries. Surprisingly, females were struggling with their entire lives to have equality with men especially in closed environments where Saudi Arabia is a case of point. Nowadays, Saudi women make up a large volume in the labour force of the country and share the development of Saudi Arabia. The equality between sexes in jobs opportunities resulted from multinational companies has been expanded for higher payments, job satisfaction, se lf confidence and independence. As a result, some individuals become able to establish families and have their own house at the end of the age twenties. With more freedoms and opportunities, people can receive more income and improve their standard of living. In addition, presence of global goods over the shelves in the marketplace next to local ones shows the differences between products in terms of quality, price, size and shape. Today, most countries can export and import products in the global village. Manufacturers are motivated to produce the best merchandises with good quality and reasonable price. Moreover, global trade creates competitive environment between companies. Customers become more convenient and well satisfied with cross border services. They can share interests and brands of other nations. For instance, Egyptians can enjoy eating McDonald meals and drive Mercedes cars as similar to Americans and Germans. According to Buckley (1998) Global trade can strengthens the relations between nations and makes wars less likely to occur. To sum up, global brands seem to unit nations and make them dependant upon each other. According to the first two means, globalisation promotes business movement and global trade which both carry enormous benefits to societies. But on the other hand, TV broadcasting has serious effects on individuals. The third example of globalisation is the broadcasting of hundreds TV channels to all viewers around the world. TV has abundant amounts of unacceptable levels of sex and violence channels that cause harm to viewers. This content is extremely damaging for youth because they might apply what they have seen and commit crimes. Furthermore, some teenagers become more aggressive and involved in organized crimes. Also, group of adults are encouraged to have sex outside of marriage which has led to social and health problems. For example, it is proven that the cause of auto immune deficiency disease is mainly due to the multi sexual relations outside of marriage. In fact, the erosion in the values of a community will cause greater social problems in the future. It is obvious that making business in other countries will increase the overall national profits and will bring technologies to the targeted ones. Investments in developed countries have shown radical changes that attract tourists. Dubai city is a vivid example that proves the success of business movement between countries. Global trade of goods and services can cause significant reduction in prices and enable limited income people to buy them. Also, it will take little time to purchase a product from global village. Sharing interests and goods between nations may enhance peace and harmony. On the other hand, if the intensity of violence and sex on TV channels continues, there will be more criminals in societies. Governments may build new prisons to accommodate increasing numbers of offenders. In conclusion, this essay has discussed the main positive effects of companies investments in developed countries and the application of global trade, where the first represents a mean of globalisation that creates benefits such as, new job opportunities, higher payments, job satisfaction and independence. Global trade increases exports and imports between countries and enables people to share brands. It gives customers the freedom to buy favourable products. The essay has discussed negative effects of broadcasting TV channels. Violence and sex content increases crimes in societies. Such practices result in sever diseases and social problems. Some individuals have acquired aggressive behaviours and others become criminals.

Infant Mortality Within the United States Essay -- Babies Birth Pregna

Infant Mortality Within the United States Herein I briefly overview the Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) within the United States. Initially, I discuss specific causes of infant death and then, contributing factors which put babies at risk. Next, the distribution of various IMR is surveyed on a state to state basis. States possessing the ten highest infant mortality rates are discussed, including possible reasons for higher IMR. In addition, those states with the ten lowest IMR are mentioned. In conclusion, I consider preventative measures for minimizing the number of babies that die each year. Return to Table of Contents Introduction Every eight seconds a baby is born in the United Sates (U.S.), and within one hour four babies die (1). The infant mortality rate (IMR) measures the rate at which babies die before their first birthday and is calculated per 1,000 live births. According to government figures 7.2 babies out of every 1,000 born in 1996 died (2, p 6). Although this figure declines steadily each year and is 406% lower than the 1950 figure (3) the United States IMR is still higher than twenty four other nations (1). More importantly, the IMR for black U.S. citizens is over twice the rate of white citizens (6.3 and 14.6 respectively) (4, p 9). The National Commission to Prevent Infant Mortality even calls some regions "disaster areas" (5, p 18). What are the leading causes of infant death, and what areas within the United States are most affected? What preventative measures can ensure a child its first birthday? These questions are addressed herein. In addition, certain National Standards f or Geography are met. Return to Table of Contents Applicable National Standards In 199... ... Rawlings, James S.; Rawlings, Virginia B.; Read, John A. "Prevalence of Low Birthweight and Preterm Delivery in Relation to the Interval between Pregnancies among White and Black Women." The New England Journal of Medicine, Vol 332, No 2, 1995, p 69-75. Scott, J. "Black Infant Death Rate 2 Â ½ Times That of Whites." Los Angeles Times, 1991 Nov 15, 110 (347), A35. Steinbrook, R. "Black Infant Deaths Tied to Birthweight." Los Angeles Times, 111 (184), 4 Jun 1992, A26. "Ten Leading Causes of Infant Mortality," Infant Health Statistics. 1997. http://www.mofimes.org/stats/ten.htm (11 April 1998). Ventura, Stephanie J.; Kimberley D. Peters; Joyce A. Martin; Jeffrey D. Maurer. Monthly Vital Statistics Report, Vol.46, No. 1 Supplement 2, 11 Sept. 1997, p 6. http://www.cdc.gov/nchswww/products/pubs/pubd/mvsr/supp/46-45/46-45.htm (11 April 1998).

Task Two Cathy Ann Wilson-Bates Western Governors

Task Two Cathy Ann Wilson-Bates Western Governors University EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE & APPLIED NURSING RESEARCH EBP 1 Brenda Luther, PhD, RN January 25, 2012 Task Two Introduction: What I have learned about working with children in a chronic healthcare setting like dialysis is that they are resilient beings with the propensity for rapid changes in their medical condition. Children almost always surprise me in their unique description of symptoms and pain. Depending on their age, they may not be able to describe the symptoms they feel or tell me â€Å"where it hurts†.A simple ear ache may be described as a â€Å"drum in my ear† or may be observed with non verbal cues like tugging on the ear. Acute Otitis Media is seen quite often during the cold and flu season. Recent clinical guidelines suggest waiting twenty four to seventy two hours before beginning antibiotic therapy. Parents of children with symptoms of otitis media are accustomed to receiving a prescription for ant ibiotics before they leave the medical office. Adults as well are preconditioned for the little white slip of paper from their physician. You can read also Coronary Artery Disease Nursing Care PlanWaiting twenty four to seventy two hours to evaluate the need for antibiotics will definitely reduce the over-prescription of antibiotics as well as their efficacy. The waiting and watching of several days may seem like an eternity to a parent caring for a sick and crying child. Educating parents during routine visits to the physician office about the risks of over-prescribing antibiotics will help when the physician needs to discuss the possibility of waiting and evaluating before prescribing antibiotics.Providing a list of comfort measures parents can follow may help relieve the anxiety they have in caring for a sick child. Any comfort measure taken to reduce crying is helpful to the parent of a sick child, but mostly to the child. The following table and paragraphs will share the results of how one group of nurses at an outpatient clinic used clinical evidence to manage this situation. Source |Type of Resource |Source appr opriate or |Type of Research | | |general information, |inappropriate |primary research evidence, | | |filtered, or unfiltered | |evidence summary, evidence-based | | | | |guideline, or none of these | |American Academy of Pediatrics and American Academy of|Filtered |Appropriate |Evidence-based guideline | |Family Physicians. Clinical practice guideline: | | | | |Diagnosis and management of acute otitis media. | | | |Causative pathogens, antibiotic resistance and |Unfiltered |Appropriate |Evidence-based guideline | |therapeutic considerations in acute otitis media. | | | | |Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal. | | | | |Ear, nose, and Throat, Current pediatric diagnosis and|General |Inappropriate |None of these | |treatment. | | | | |Treatment of acute otitis media in an era of |Filtered |Appropriate |Evidence –based guideline | |increasing microbial resistance.Pediatric Infectious| | | | |Disease Journal | | | | |Results from interviews with parents who have brought |Unfilte red |Appropriate |Primary research evidence | |their children into the clinic for acute otitis media. | | | | | | | | | Subcommittee on Management of Acute Otitis Media. (2004). American Academy of Pediatrics and American Academy of Family Physicians. Clinical Practice Guidelines: Diagnosis and Manegment of Acute Otitis Media. American Academy of Pediatrics , Vol. 13 No 5 1451-1465. This article is an evidence-based clinical guideline. It is a systematic review making it a filtered resource which is very appropriate for this situation. The article describes the current, (as of 2004) recommendations for the diagnosis and management of Acute Otitis Media (Subcommittee on Management of Acute Otitis Media, 2004). These guidelines show several different ways to treat acute otitis media depending on the symptoms of the child. It states that sometimes waiting to give antibiotics is good and sometimes waiting to give antibiotics is not good. This article is appropriate and provides clarity on the topic. Block, S. L. (1997).Causative pathogens, antibiotic resistance and therapeutic considerations in acute otitis media. The Pediatric Infectious disease Journal , Volume 16 (4) pp 449-456. This article discusses antibiotic resistance and describes the bacterial pathogens which are responsible for infections causing acute otitis media. This article is appropriate. It contains a comparison of studies performed based on the different types of bacteria which cause acute otitis media. It stresses the importance of identifying the bacteria causing the infection before giving antibiotics so that number one the bacteria can be eradicated and other bacteria will not become resistant (Block, 1997).PE Kelley, N. F. (2006). Ear, Nose and. In M. L. W. W. Hay, Current Pediatric Diagnoisis and Treatment (pp. 459-492). Lang. This textbook source contains general information on the ear, nose and throat. There is much more information here regarding basic anatomy and physiology as well as characteristics of the ear nose and throat. The information regarding otitis media is basic and not an appropriate source of research in this situation for three reasons. Number one, the information is very basic, number two, it does not give any up to date information on how to treat this type of infection, and number three there is too much non-relevant information.McCracken, G. H. (1998). Treatment of acute otitis media in an era of increasing microbial resistance. The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal , Volume 17(6) pp576-579. This article is a review of the known etiologies that may cause acute otitis media. The article gives up to date information on therapeutic approaches when selecting an appropriate antibiotic therapy. We don’t practice â€Å"cookie cutter† medicine. The same prescription is not always right for all patients or all communities where some bacteria’s may be more prevalent than others (McCracken, 1998). This is appropriate information f or this group of people or community. media, P. o. (n. d. ).Interviews. (C. nurses, Interviewer) This set of interviews is simply raw data. General information can however provide great insight as to what is happening out in the community. For example, this information might shed light on the fact that if the parents are willing to hold off on antibiotics for example, would they be more likely to follow up and come back into the clinic when asked? The reaction of parents is dependent upon other several basic factors like finances, a belief system and possibly the ability to obtain transportation. Knowing how the community is going to respond to their choice may have a great effect on the decisions they make.When evaluating the findings of these sources cumulatively, one must first determine the causative pathogens infecting patients in this given community with acute otitis media. After pathogen determination we can determine which antibiotics may be most useful in eradicating the g iven bacteria. Careful selection of antibiotic therapy will reduce the propensity for antibiotic resistance. Watchful waiting may be a good thing from the perspective of increasing microbial resistance however we must always evaluate patients on their individual needs or on a patient by patient case. One size doesn’t always fit all. Patient education is the key to keeping the public informed of current practice.Physicians and Nurses need to be consistent in the lesson plan shared with patients and remain true to our scope of practice. Communication is essential between the physician, nurse and other multidisciplinary team members in order to provide the best care. There are many considerations in assessing if patients are able to withstand the waiting and evaluation period. Low income families are one example of how the waiting and watching method might not work. Parents may have to take time off work to come to clinic with a sick child. They might struggle finding money for the additional return trip to the clinic and may risk losing their job if they take more time off work.Many low income families may have already waited before seeking help thus creating their own watchful waiting period. They also may not be able to afford antibiotics and as a result may not give the full dose if symptoms have subsided. The perception is that they will save the medication for the next time symptoms arise. Confidentiality might be an issue in smaller communities. People tend to be concerned about neighbors and co-workers and some may not care to share their experience with others. This may be an issue for parents who don’t share custody as in the case of divorce. It is a greater issue when parents or partners don’t share the same fundamental values, especially those related to healthcare. Conclusion:Watchful waiting like the nurses in this clinic are looking at may be useful for some of the patients, but not all. Again, a one size fits all philosophy is not always appropriate in healthcare. Tools like algorithms may be helpful in determining the appropriateness for watching and waiting versus immediate action as determined by physical findings and social circumstances like parental adherence for follow up and ability to afford treatment. Whatever course you choose, watchful waiting or immediate antibiotics the best practice remains a plan of care based on the individual needs of our patients. References Block, S. L. (1997). Causative pathogens, antibiotic resistance and therapeutic considerations in acute otitis media.The Pediatric Infectious disease Journal , Volume 16 (4) pp 449-456. McCracken, G. H. (1998). Treatment of acute otitis media in an era of increasing microbial resistance. The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal , Volume 17(6) pp576-579. media, P. o. (n. d. ). Interviews. (C. nurses, Interviewer) PE Kelley, N. F. (2006). Ear, Nose and. In M. L. W. W. Hay, Current Pediatric Diagnoisis and Treatment (pp. 459-492). Lan g. Subcommittee on Management of Acute Otitis Media. (2004). American Academy of Pediatrics and American Academy of Family Physicians. Clinical Practice Guidelines: Diagnosis and Manegment of Acute Otitis Media. American Academy of Pediatrics , Vol. 113 No 5 1451-1465.

African American Outline Essay

It happens to be common knowledge that throughout history African Americans have been oppressed, segregated, and disregarded as civil human beings. In the dawn of history Africans were regarded as animals and as such they would do the job of animals, however this paper will look at their sacrifices and fights to be treated as equals. United States Congress. (1866, April 9). Civil Rights Act. Retrieved from http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/exhibits/reconstruction/section4/section4_civrightsact1.html Amendments to the Constitution of the United States (2007)| Infoplease.com http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0749825.html#A0749838#ixzz2VD3iU0JEhttp://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0749825.html#A0749838 Abolishment of slavery.    See more: what is essay format    The abolishment of slavery brought on a war, not between two countries but a war that divided a country, one that is still spoken of today. The southern or â€Å"rebel† states rose against the President of the United States in retaliation of his and many others view that no man woman or child should be a slave. All people were created equal. Amendments to the Constitution of the United States (2007)| Infoplease.com http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0749825.html#A0749838#ixzz2VD3iU0JEhttp://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0749825.html#A0749838 (13th, 14th, and 15th amendments). Africans in politics. Although four million African American slaves were now free they had codes placed against them, the Black Codes restricted the lives and movement of these people. In order to override the codes the 13th, 14th and 15th amendments were drafted and passed. Not only was slavery abolished but all slaves were now citizens and in such race could no longer be used to prevent the vote of a person. Africans now had a voice on who was elected and soon they had African Americans running for government offices. Corbould, C. (2009) Becoming African Americans: Black Public Life in Harlem, 1919-1939 Harvard University Press. Cambridge, MA, USA. Harlem Renaissance African Americans soon were cast aside again, during the age of imperialism and leading into World War One Africans were struggling to make a life. Some fought in another war, this time not for their freedom but for the freedom from communism alongside their white counterparts. After the war ended blacks started to come together, the Harlem Renaissance was born. King, M. L. Jr. (2010) Stride Toward Freedom: The Montgomery Story. Beacon Press. Boston, MA, USA. Black power movement 1954 to 1963 America saw a strong struggle for the advancement of civil rights, equality and desegregation. From every day citizens expressing their belief in being equal to their white counterparts to lawyers fighting for the equality all had deserved. These times were pivitol in an unstable America. Not only were there these movements of civil equality and black power but also a war in a far land that many Americans were against at the time. Inventions and impact. From writers, inventors and powerful leaders throughout black history there are some that are household names and some that may be forgotten. I plan on taking a look back on those who through oppression continued to strive for better for themselves and for all. African Americans today. Not long ago segregation was prominent, civil rights were abused, racism and hate were common. Today we have CEO’s, congressmen and senators, military leaders and the President of the United States who are all African Americans. No longer considered a minority in many’s eyes, African Americans have literally built themselves from slaves to leaders and teachers.